crs_reports: R48902

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R48902 Internet Architecture: A Layer-Based Analysis of Selected Internet Policy Issues 2026-04-10T04:00:00Z 2026-04-11T05:08:02Z Active Reports Ling Zhu   The internet is an information system of geographically distributed, interconnected computer networks (known as “a network of networks”). The term internet architecture generally refers to its fundamental design—a set of technical principles and protocols and the network structure of the internet. On the basis of the internet architecture model, the internet runs a wide variety of communication services that enable and facilitate information access, distribution, exchange, sharing, and creation. Internet architecture can be represented by five hierarchical layers: the application layer, the transport layer, the network layer, the link layer, and the physical layer. Each layer contains network protocols, which are common languages or conventions that internet devices and equipment use to communicate with one another, control data transmission, and deliver an internet service. The application layer represents a variety of online applications available to end users (e.g., websites, email services, social media platforms, digital marketplaces, and online streaming services). In the application layer, users directly interact with the internet (e.g., through a web browser) and communicate with other users (e.g., through a social media mobile app). The transport layer is responsible for transporting data generated by internet applications between devices (e.g., sending a message from one user’s laptop to another user’s smartphone using an email application). This layer contains a small number of communication protocols. The most commonly used one is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which ensures reliable end-to-end data transmission over the internet in the correct order and without errors, missing data, or duplicate data. The network layer is responsible for finding the most efficient path to route the data across any set of interconnected networks between the source device and the destination device, using Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. Because the internet uses TCP and IP collectively as its core communication protocols, the internet is also known as a “TCP/IP network.” The link layer is responsible for moving network-layer data packets from one internet device to the next “neighbor” device through a wired (e.g., a cable) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi or 5G) link within a network. The physical layer represents a variety of transmission media used to physically establish the network link. These are the actual media that carry each single piece of data (i.e., a bit of 0 or 1) from one internet device to the next. These media include coaxial and fiber-optic cables for wired connectivity and radio spectrum for wireless connectivity. Understanding the multilayer internet architecture model may be helpful for analyzing certain internet policy issues. To address the issue of unlawful content on the internet, for example, policymakers may target options at different internet layers. At the application layer, a law enforcement agency may seek to seize a consumer-facing website used for online illegal activities (e.g., offering to sell illegal products or carrying out online financial scams). At the transport layer, it is technically possible for an internet service provider to use certain network management techniques to inspect content being transmitted over its network and detect and block illegal content (e.g., copyright-infringement materials distributed by a peer-to-peer service). At the network layer, a federal agency may notify certain internet service operators of activities (e.g., selling drugs illegally) on a website under the operator’s control. The operator could then take actions to render the website inaccessible. At the link and physical layers, some federal law enforcement agencies (e.g., the Federal Bureau of Prisons) receive a special temporary authority from the Federal Communications Commission to implement wireless signal jamming technologies to prevent cell phone usage and internet access by certain individuals in certain areas. Cloud computing, an internet-based service model, provides an example of how knowledge of internet architecture can be useful for understanding and analyzing selected internet policy issues in the context of global artificial intelligence (AI) competition. For example, at the application layer, the concentration of the small number of service providers in the cloud computing market may raise questions regarding fair competition and access to computational resources for AI development. At the link/physical layer, the construction of AI data centers that host and deliver cloud computing services may raise questions about U.S. energy capacity and impacts of these data centers on nearby communities. Policymakers may also be concerned about safeguarding U.S.-based AI cloud services from foreign adversary access. Several pieces of legislation have been introduced to address this national security concern. If enacted, this legislation might be challenging to effectively enforce. At the application layer, targeted foreign entities might try to access the service through their subsidiaries or shell firms in other countries. At the TCP/IP layer, if a client’s data are encrypted on the cloud server, it would be difficult to monitor any specific, malicious uses of cloud resources. At the link/physical layer, internet service providers could disconnect an internet backbone connection with specific countries. This approach, however, could result in a blanket block, cutting off all users within the country, not only those attempting to access restricted U.S. AI resources. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R48902/R48902.1.pdf https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/HTML/R48902.html

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